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Tag: The Jewish Apocrypha

Book of Susanna

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the book of Susanna?

The Book of Susanna (also known as History of Susannah and the Elders) is part of what is considered the Apocrypha / Deuterocanonical books and appears in the Old Testament of Catholic Bibles. The books of the Apocrypha were generally written in the roughly 400 years between the composition of the books in the Old and New Testaments, the intertestamental period. Susanna is one of 12-15 books generally recognized as comprising the Apocrypha.

Susanna is among the additions to the book of Daniel (as are Bel and the Dragon, The Prayer of Azariah and the Song of the Three Jews) and was most likely composed between 200–100 B.C. The Book of Daniel, written by the prophet Daniel himself (12:4) in the sixth century B.C., is placed in different locations of the Bible depending on the culture: the Jews place it among the Writings, dismissing its prophecies, while the English translations place it among the Major Prophets.

The Book of Daniel begins with King Nebuchadnezzar’s desire to impose Babylonian culture upon some Israelite youths, of whom Daniel was one, but as the years pass, Daniel astonishes Nebuchadnezzar by interpreting his symbolic dreams. After a series of religious confrontations, Daniel’s interpretations were clear: accept God or suffer His wrath. The king finally accepts God. Years after these events, Daniel was called to interpret prophetical words towards Nebuchadnezzar’s son Belshazzar. Belshazzar died and lost the kingdom to Darius the Mede. After being bestowed with power by Darius (and surviving an encounter with lions through divine intervention), Daniel experiences a series of intense personal visions; dreams showing events ranging from the near future to the end of days.

The Book of Susanna is most commonly placed before the events of Daniel 1 (Theodotion tradition); however, the Septuagint and Vulgate editions position it between Daniel 12 and 14. Susanna’s strongest literary influences are the Old Testament books of Genesis, Leviticus and Deuteronomy, though, ironically, it is not dependent on Daniel itself. Though the early church originally considered it canonical, debate erupted to whether it should be excluded as early as the third century, as attested in the Letter to Africanus, a detailed correspondence between Africanus and Origen.

Structurally, the book is only 64 verses long and can be summarized as follows: In Babylon, a wealthy man called Joakim marries the God-fearing Susanna, daughter of a priest (1-4). When two elders become the local judges, they visited Joakim’s house and stalked Susanna, lusting after her and disobeying God’s law (8-9). Then, many days later, while watching Susanna preparing to bathe (15) they approach her and say, “Look, the garden doors are shut, and no one can see us. We are burning with desire for you; so give your consent, and lie with us. If you refuse, we will testify against you that a young man was with you, and this was why you sent your maids away” (20-21). She rejects their blackmail and cries out against the attempted rape (24). After Susanna’s draws attention to their actions, the elders state their innocence, and Susanna is put on trial the next day. During the court session, the elders fulfill their threat to Susanna and speak of her betrothing a young man (36-41). Deemed guilty, she is “led off to execution, [until] God stirred up the holy spirit of a young lad named Daniel” (45). Daniel compels the townspeople to return to the trial, as he declares the elders have lied (49). They return, and Daniel asks each elder separately, “Under what tree did you see them being intimate with one another?” (54). When each answers differently, Susanna is freed, and the elders are put to death (62).

Both abiding in and refuting God’s Law are at the core of the Book of Susanna. From the beginning, we are told that Susanna had been trained “according to the law of Moses” (3), and this training is clearly visible throughout the text. When forced to choose between adultery or accusations of adultery (leading to certain death), Susanna is aware of God’s Law as it is written in Leviticus 20:10, “If a man commits adultery with the wife of his neighbor, both the adulterer and the adulteress shall be put to death” and Deuteronomy 22:22, “If a man is caught lying with the wife of another man, both of them shall die, the man who lay with the woman as well as the woman. So you shall purge the evil from Israel.”

When facing possible rape (24), Susanna knows that the Law instructs that a woman must cry for help, for if she doesn’t, she will not be seen as having been violated (Deuteronomy 22:24). When placed on trial before the accusing elders, Susanna shouts to the Lord that “these men have given false evidence” (43), indicating her understanding of law in accordance with Deuteronomy 19:16-21. Later, it is Daniel who refers to the same law when asking, “Are you such fools, O Israelites, as to condemn a daughter of Israel without examination and without learning the facts?” (48).

The “two elders from [whom] the people… appointed judges” (5), are clearly aware of the Law of Moses handed down from God but choose to disobey them. The elders “began to lust” after Susanna, despite the law in Exodus 20:17: “You shall not covet your neighbor’s wife.” Before they give false testimony against Susanna, they “laid their hands on her head,” as written in Leviticus 24:14, “Take the blasphemer outside the camp; and let all who were within hearing lay their hands on his head, and let the whole congregation stone him.” The elders are clearly aware that two witnesses are required when trying a Jew that has been charged with a crime, as attested in Numbers 35:30, “No one shall be put to death on the testimony of a single witness” and Deuteronomy 17:6, “On the evidence of two or three witnesses the death sentence shall be executed; a person must not be put to death on the evidence of only one witness.” In an ironic twist, when the elders are found to be liars and have mocked God’s Law, those same laws deal them their fate (62) in accordance with Deuteronomy 19:16-21.

More commentary can be offered regarding the issue of divine intervention as a major religious idea espoused in the Book of Susanna. Had God not “stirred up the holy spirit of a young lad named Daniel” (45), it is certain that Susanna would have been unjustly killed. The intervention of God, often through a human vessel, is a prominent theme throughout both the Old and New Testament canons. That humankind strays from the laws of God, or even breaks them, often has God having to become involved in the affairs of humans to correct injustice or, in some cases, express His wrath in a just and necessary manner. What is striking about the Book of Susanna is that it depicts the ongoing struggle of the Jewish nation in abiding by the laws commissioned by God. From their initial failure to abide by the Ten Commandments (Exodus 32) to Paul’s statement that one should “not, for the sake of food, destroy the work of God” (Romans 14:20), the laws decreed by God were seen by some Jewish thinkers as being susceptible to human corruption or multiple interpretations, which required the intervention of a merciful God when humans abused His laws.

The Book of Susanna, though brief, is a compelling book of innocence and man’s corruption of God’s Law. While not canonical, it is worthy of study and application to contemporary Judaism and Christianity, for it is a story which contains a message relevant to everyday life, even if it is considered a work of fiction by most Jews and Christians. By exploring its major religious ideas and Jewish thought in the period it was written, readers of Susanna may better understand the strengths and weaknesses of man’s application of God’s Law and that, no matter what, God will ensure that justice reigns.

Letter of Jeremiah

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the Letter of Jeremiah?

The Letter of Jeremiah, also called the Epistle of Jeremy, is one of the books of the Apocrypha. It is often included as chapter 6 of the book of Baruch, although it does occasionally stand alone in some versions. Apocryphal books are those that are not generally considered inspired. The word apocrypha means “things hidden away.” These books were never included in the Hebrew canon, were never accepted as canonical by Jesus or the apostles, and were never accepted as Scripture by early Jewish writers. Many of these books also contain historical, geographical, or chronological errors. They are classified as “deuterocanonical,” or part of the “secondary” canon by some denominations.

The earliest manuscripts of the Letter of Jeremiah are in Greek, including one found among the scrolls of Qumran. However, most scholars believe the original may have been composed in Hebrew or Aramaic. It is generally thought to have been written between 307 and 317 B.C. The fact that much of the material appears to be dependent on some biblical passages in Isaiah lends support to the later date.

Although the document is called the Letter of Jeremiah, it is neither a letter, nor is it from Jeremiah. The date of writing places it nearly 300 years after Jeremiah’s call to prophesy. The text is largely made up of denouncements of idolatry. It begins with a warning to the exiles of the idolatry they would see in Babylon, which is followed by a series of colorful descriptions about how ineffectual and helpless idols are. It concludes with a final warning and exhortation to avoid idolatry. Like all apocryphal books, this one cannot be considered the inspired Word of God. However, this does not mean that it is a bad book; much of the material in the book is both true and helpful. It may have good advice, even godly advice, but it cannot be considered inerrant.

Prayer of Manasseh

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the Prayer of Manasseh?

The Prayer of Manasseh is a part of the Apocrypha. It is a short work, containing just 15 verses. It purports to be a prayer by King Manasseh of Judah (697-642 B.C.), but it was pseudonymously written as early as the second century or just before the destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70. Second Chronicles 33:19 says that Manasseh prayed but does not record the prayer itself referring the reader to what was “written in the records of the seers.”

King Manasseh, the thirteenth king of Judah, was one of the most wicked and idolatrous kings in biblical history (2 Kings 21:1-18). He was captured by the Assyrians and imprisoned in Babylon. There, he prayed for mercy and repented of his sin of idolatry (2 Chronicles 33:1-19).

The Prayer of Manasseh is considered by Jews, Catholics and Protestants as apocryphal, i.e., non-canonical and of doubtful authenticity. However, the fourth-century Vulgate included it at the end of the book of 2 Chronicles. It later became part of the Matthew Bible and the Geneva Bible of 1599. It is also found in the Apocrypha of the King James Bible.

The prayer departs from Christian teaching in that it says men such as Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob did not need to repent because they “did not sin” (verse 8). This runs counter to the clear teaching of Scripture that all have sinned (Romans 3:10-12; Romans 3:21-26). The righteousness of Abraham was a product of his faith in God and was not anything inherent in him (Romans 4:3; Philippians 3:8-9).

In summary, God has told us that Manasseh prayed a much-needed prayer of repentance, but He has not told us the content of that prayer.

Wisdom of Solomon

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the Wisdom of Solomon?

The Wisdom of Solomon, also called the Book of Wisdom, is one of the books of the Apocrypha. Others in the group include 1 and 2 Esdras, Tobit, Judith, Ecclesiasticus, Baruch, the Letter of Jeremiah, Prayer of Manasseh, and 1 and 2 Maccabees. Most of the books of the Apocrypha are accepted by the Roman Catholic Church and are included in Catholic Bibles. The Apocrypha/Deuterocanonical books teach many things that are not true and are not historically accurate. The Roman Catholic Church officially added the Apocrypha/Deuterocanonicals to their Bible at the Council of Trent in the mid-1500s AD, primarily in response to the Protestant Reformation. None of the apocryphal books are included in the canon of Scripture.

The Wisdom of Solomon was believed by some to have been written by King Solomon, although his name appears nowhere in the text. However, the early church rejected the authorship of Solomon; an ancient manuscript known as the Muratorian fragment refers to the Wisdom of Solomon as having been written by “the friends of Solomon in his honor.” It is widely accepted today, even by the Catholic Church, that Solomon did not write the book, which dates back to the 1st or 2nd century BC, many centuries after the death of Solomon.

While Solomon wrote much on the subject of wisdom in Proverbs and Ecclesiastes, he never elevated it to the status of part of the Godhead, a philosophy found in The Wisdom of Solomon. The book refers to Wisdom in terms the Bible reserves for the Messiah, saying, “She [wisdom] is a reflection of eternal light, a spotless mirror of the working of God, and an image of his goodness” (Wisdom 7:26). The book of Hebrews reserves such accolades for the Son of God, who “is the radiance of God’s glory and the exact representation of his being” (Hebrews 1:3). Even more egregious, Wisdom 9:18 says that salvation is an act of wisdom, whereas Scripture is clear that salvation is by faith, a gift of God to those whom He calls, justifies, and sanctifies (Ephesians 2:8–9; Romans 8:30). In fact, if man were to depend upon his “wisdom” for salvation, we would be lost forever with no hope because the unredeemed are dead in trespasses and sin (Ephesians 2:1–4) and their minds are darkened (Ephesians 4:18; 1 Corinthians 2:14) and their heart deceitful and desperately wicked (Jeremiah 17:9).

The apocryphal books are accepted by the Roman Catholic Church because many of the books teach Catholic doctrines that are not in agreement with the Bible, including praying for the dead, petitioning Mary to intercede with the Father, worshiping angels, and alms-giving as atonement for sins. Some of what the Apocrypha/Deuterocanonicals say is true and correct. However, due to the historical and theological errors, the books, including The Wisdom of Solomon, must be viewed as fallible historical and religious documents, not as the inspired, authoritative Word of God.

Genesis Apocryphon

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the Genesis Apocryphon?

The Genesis Apocryphon is one of the first Dead Sea Scrolls discovered in 1947. It is an expansion of the book of Genesis meant to give further details. This kind of biblical expansion was often done to promote a particular theology or moral perspective. Due to deterioration in the scroll, the beginning and ending of the book are missing, and there are some (literal) holes in the body of the text as well. Only one copy of the scroll has been found to date.

The scroll containing the Genesis Apocryphon has three major sections, which are referred to as “The Book of Lamech,” “The Book of Noah,” and “The Book of Abraham.” Each section is written from the viewpoint of the title character. The writing is pseudepigraphal, which means it was written in the voice of the main character but was not actually written by that person. In the case of the Apocryphon of Genesis, it seems that it was not the intention of the author to “fool” anyone into thinking that the book had actually been written by Lamech, Noah, and Abraham; rather, the Genesis Apocryphon followed a common literary style of teaching and explanation. The effect, however, is that words and ideas not contained in the original text of Genesis were added.

The first section of Genesis Apocryphon, “The Book of Lamech” is intended to be the words of Noah’s father, Lamech. Lamech is concerned that one of his children may have actually been fathered by one of the Nephilim. He goes to his father Methuselah, who goes to his father, Enoch, for answers. Enoch explains that the son is indeed Lamech’s. There are a lot of gaps in the text.

Then the story switches to the words of Noah. In “The Book of Noah” section of the Genesis Apocryphon, Noah explains that he is righteous because of all his good deeds and obedience to God even from birth. After that, much of the text is missing, so most of the story of the flood is skipped. After the flood, Noah surveys the land and divides territory among his sons. Again, there are so many holes in the text that it is difficult to piece together a coherent narrative.

Finally, the story switches to Abram (Abraham). Much of the text of “The Book of Abraham” portion of the Genesis Apocryphon is the same as the narrative found in Genesis. One significant addition is that Abraham learns in a dream that Pharaoh will seek to kill him and take his wife while he is in Egypt. (This may be an attempt to justify Abram’s actions in Genesis 12.) Abraham keeps Sarai from Pharaoh’s sight for five years, but then Pharaoh finally sees and takes her, thinking she is Abram’s sister. As a result, Pharaoh’s household is afflicted for the next two years. Finally, Sarai is returned to Abram, and Abram returns to Canaan. The story ends with his parting from Lot.

In addition to the book of Genesis, the Genesis Apocryphon relies on the extra-biblical books of Enoch and Jubilees, which are from the second temple period. The book itself seems to be from about the first century BC.

Book of Ecclesiasticus

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the book of Ecclesiasticus?

There are several books which are included in some Bibles, called the apocryphal or deuterocanonical books, but because they don’t appear in all Bibles, they often cause confusion. These extra books are generally referred to as extra-canonical by Protestants, because they were not included in early lists of accepted Scriptures by the church fathers. They are also called deuterocanonical (“second canon”) or apocryphal (“hidden”) books. Ecclesiasticus, also known as The Wisdom of Sirach or just Sirach, is one of those books. Though it was well-known and widely read in New Testament times, it was not always viewed on a par with the Old Testament books.

Ecclesiasticus was apparently written by Jesus, grandson of Sirach, sometime between 190 and 170 BC. He is also referred to as Yeshua Ben Sirach or simply Ben Sira. He was a philosophical observer of life who lived in Jerusalem and was well-versed in the Hebrew Scriptures and traditions. The original book was written in Hebrew, and a Greek translation was produced by the author’s grandson about 132 BC. In the Greek edition’s prologue, the writer identifies the accepted Hebrew canon as being composed of “the Law and the prophets, and the others who followed after.” By this three-fold categorization, the writer indicates that the Old Testament canon was considered closed, and his own book was not included. This view is supported by other ancient writings that list the Old Testament books and do not include any of the deuterocanonical or apocryphal books.

The common title of the book comes from the fact that it was used in ancient synagogue services, and it even had popular use in early church meetings. The Book of Ecclesiasticus was included in the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Old Testament written around 250 BC, as well as Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (both from the 4th century AD). Despite its inclusion in the Septuagint and its widespread use in the early centuries, it was not included in the Hebrew canon, and no early church father included it in the canon until Augustine in AD 397. Epiphanius wrote in AD 385 that the canonicity of the book was disputed among the Jews of his day, and the Council of Laodicea in AD 363 omitted the book in its list of accepted Scriptures. Melito, the bishop of Sardis in AD 170, made a point of omitting the disputed books from the canon, and Eusebius of Caesarea gave his recommendation to Melito’s writing. The Catholic Church gave its official support to the deuterocanonical books with the decision of the Council of Trent in 1546, thus solidifying the Catholic canon as distinct from the previously accepted canon of Scripture. Most Protestants still hold to the ancient canon and reject the deuterocanonical books.

The contents of Ecclesiasticus are much like the other Hebrew wisdom books. Advice on a wide variety of topics in no particular order, and poems extolling wisdom and the Lord as the source of wisdom comprise most of the book. One area in which Ecclesiasticus differs from Scripture is in its treatment of retribution for sin. It is possible that Ben Sira identified with the Sadducees, who did not believe in life after death. The Hebrew version denies any retribution in the afterlife, teaching instead that God will punish those sins in this lifetime. Daniel 12:2 states clearly that some will awake to everlasting life, and “some to shame and everlasting contempt.” Psalm 9:17 also says that the wicked will be sent to hell, and Jesus rebuked the Sadducees (Matthew 22:29-32) for their ignorance in denying life after death.

For the most part, the remainder of the book can serve as a valuable commentary and instructional guide, since it finds its foundations in the Scriptures. Much of the book reflects the teachings of earlier biblical books, and it holds a traditional conservative Jewish theology. God is depicted as unchanging, all-knowing, and merciful. Even though sin is a result of man’s choice, there is hope even for sinners, because they can turn away from sin and repent. The essence of the book is that wisdom, identified with the Law, is bestowed only on one who fears the Lord (cf. Proverbs 9:10).

Book of Sirach

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the book of Sirach?

The book of Sirach is part of what is considered the Apocrypha/Deuterocanonical scripture and appears in the Old Testament of Catholic Bible. It is considered one of the “wisdom” books. Except for some Episcopal or Lutheran Bibles, Sirach and other books of the Apocrypha do not appear in Protestant Bibles. Apocrypha means “hidden,” and deuterocanonical means “second-listed.” Books of the Apocrypha were generally written in the roughly 400 years between the composition of the books in the Old and New Testaments, the intertestamental period. Sirach, also known as “Ecclesiasticus” or the “Wisdom of Sirach,” is one of 12–15 books generally recognized as comprising the Apocrypha.

Controversy surrounds the Apocrypha regarding whether these books are from God and divinely inspired. For example, some biblical scholars point out that Jesus never quoted any verses from the Apocrypha, although He quoted with great frequency from many Old Testament books. Many books of the Apocrypha contain historical or geographical inaccuracies and teach false doctrines (e.g., the book of Tobit claims good works lead to salvation). Plus, Jewish Scripture never included any of these documents as sacred writings.

Jesus, son of Eleazar, son of Sirach, is believed to have written this book between 200–175 BC. The book of Sirach possesses a wealth of varied expressions of wise and foolish behavior reminiscent of the book of Proverbs. Many of its verses have Old Testament antecedents, especially from the book of Proverbs (dozens of related verses) and the Pentateuch, which is comprised of the first five books of the Bible. Portions of Sirach are used today in Catholic Church liturgy.

While most of this book tracks with long-standing, sound biblical doctrine, there are several tenets that conflict significantly with Christian beliefs. In several places, Sirach implies our actions can bring favor upon ourselves, mitigate our sin in God’s eyes, and anticipate reciprocal responses from those we assist in their time of need (chapters 3, 7, 12, 17, and 22). This is in stark contrast to the Bible’s teaching to be a cheerful giver (2 Corinthians 9:7), salvation through faith and not by works (Ephesians 2:8-9), and Jesus’ exhortation to give without expecting anything in return (Matthew 6:3).

Providing readers precise Sirach citations (chapter and verse, as with the Bible) is highly problematic, as a firm numbering construct apparently does not exist. For example, in the New American Bible (Catholic Bible Press, 1987) and the Apocrypha (God’s Word Translation, Baker Books, 2009), there are several instances where the numbering of verses as well as total number of chapter verses differ. As a result, only Sirach chapters are referenced above.

The book of Sirach is not part of the recognized canon of Scripture, and it is not the inspired Word of God. As such, although it may have some historical/cultural significance, it is not God-breathed and does not possess the qualities of divinely inspired Scripture (2 Timothy 3:16).

1 and 2 Maccabees

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.

What are the books of 1 and 2 Maccabees?

The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees are early Jewish writings detailing the history of the Jews in the first century BC. Both books are part of the canon of Scripture in the Greek Orthodox, Roman Catholic, Coptic, and Russian Orthodox churches, but they are not recognized as canon by Protestants and Jews. The books outline the history of the Maccabees, Jewish leaders who led a rebellion of the Jews against the Seleucid Dynasty from 175 BC to 134 BC. The first book portrays the effort by the Jews to regain their cultural and religious independence from Antiochus IV Epiphanes after his desecration of the Jewish temple.

The book of 2 Maccabees consists of a Greek synopsis of a five-volume history of the Maccabean Revolt written by Jason of Cyrene. The authors of both books are unknown. The first book, although written from a biased perspective, does not directly mention God or divine intervention. The second book has a more theological slant, advancing several doctrines followed by the Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches. The book of 1 Maccabees was written in Hebrew and later translated into Greek. Scholars believe that the author was a Palestinian Jew who was intimately familiar with the events described. The author opposed the Hellenization of the Jews and clearly supported and admired the Jewish revolutionaries led by Judas Maccabeus and his brothers.

In the second century BC, Judea existed between the Egyptian Ptolemaic Kingdom and the Syrian Seleucid Empire, kingdoms formed after the death of Alexander the Great. Judea fell under the control of the Seleucids in approximately 200 BC. During this time, many Jews began to adopt a Greek lifestyle and culture in order to gain economic and political influence. They avoided circumcision and advocated abolishing Jewish religious laws.

Antiochus IV Epiphanes became the ruler of the Seleucid Empire in 175 BC. He was inconsiderate of the views of the religious, traditional Jews in Israel. To Antiochus, the office of high priest was merely a local appointee within his realm, while to orthodox Jews the high priest was divinely appointed. Antiochus appointed a high priest named Jason, a Hellenized Jew, who promptly abolished the Jewish theocracy, followed by Menelaus, who had the rightful high priest, Onias, murdered. After Menelaus’ brother stole sacred articles from the temple, a civil war ensued between the Hellenized Jews and the religious Jews. Antiochus subsequently attacked Jerusalem, pillaged the temple, and killed or captured many of the women and children. He banned traditional Jewish religious practice, outlawing Jewish sacrifices, Sabbaths, feasts, and circumcision. He established altars to Greek gods upon which “unclean” animals were sacrificed. He desecrated the Jewish temple. Possession of Jewish Scriptures became a capital offence.

In a small, rural village called Modein, an elderly priest named Mattathias lived with his five sons—John, Simon, Judas, Eleazer, and Jonathan. Sometimes referred to as the Hasmoneans (a designation derived from Asmoneus, the name of one of their ancestors), this family more frequently has been called the Maccabeans (a nickname meaning “hammerer”). In 167 BC Antiochus sent some of his soldiers to Modein to compel the Jewish inhabitants to make sacrifices to the pagan gods. Mattathias, as a leader in the city, was commanded by the officers to be the first person to offer a sacrifice as an example to the rest of the people. He refused with a powerful speech (see 1 Maccabees 2:15–22).

Fearing violence against the people for Mattathias’ refusal, another Jew volunteered to offer the sacrifices to the pagan gods in the place of Mattathias, but Mattathias killed this Jewish man, as well as the soldiers of the king. He then destroyed the altar to the pagan gods, after which he, his sons, and a number of followers fled to the mountainous wilderness. These men formed a large, guerrilla warfare army and soon began to launch raids against the towns of the land, tearing down the pagan altars, killing the officials of Antiochus, and also executing those Jews who were worshiping the pagan gods.

Mattathias died in 166 BC, just as the revolt was gaining momentum, leaving his son Judas in charge of the rebel forces. Even though greatly outnumbered, Judas and his rebels defeated general after general in battle, winning decisive victories against overwhelming odds. The rebels even won a tremendous victory south of Mizpah against a combined army of 50,000 troops. The people of Israel gave Judas the nickname “Maccabeus” because of his success in “hammering” the enemy forces into the ground.

Antiochus, who had underestimated the scope of the revolt, now realized the serious nature of the rebellion in Israel. He dispatched Lysias, the commander-in-chief of the Seleucid army, along with 60,000 infantrymen and 5,000 cavalry, to utterly destroy the Jews. This vast army was additionally commanded by two generals serving under Lysias—Nicanor and Gorgias. This powerful army came against Judas, who fought with a force of only 10,000 poorly equipped rebels, in the town of Emmaus. He prayed to God for strength and deliverance (1 Maccabees 4:30–33), and God answered and they won a huge victory over the Seleucid army.

Subsequently, the Maccabees marched into Jerusalem, cleansed the temple, and resumed traditional Jewish religious practices. The festival of Hanukkah commemorates the cleansing and rededication of the Jewish temple. Judas’s brother Jonathan became the new high priest after the rededication of the temple and ultimately succeeded Judas as commander of the army. His brother Simon assumed control from 142 to 135 BC, followed by Simon’s son, John Hyrcanus. With the death of Simon, the last son of Mattathias, the Maccabean Revolt came to an end. The author concludes his narrative in 1 Maccabees with these events.

The Second Book of Maccabees was written in Koine Greek, most likely around 100 BC. This work coheres with 1 Maccabees, but it is written as a theological interpretation of the Maccabean Revolt. In addition to outlining the historical events, 2 Maccabees discusses several doctrinal issues, including prayers and sacrifices for the dead, intercession of the saints, and resurrection on Judgment Day. The Catholic Church has based the doctrines of purgatory and masses for the dead on this work. On the other hand, an important tenet of the Protestant Reformation (1517) was that scriptural translations should be derived from the original Hebrew and Aramaic texts for the Old Testament and Greek for the New Testament, rather than upon the Septuagint and Jerome’s Vulgate. Statements were included in the Protestant Bibles indicating that the Apocrypha was not to be placed on the same level as the other documents.

Bel and the Dragon

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is Bel and the Dragon?

Bel and the Dragon is one of several additions to the book of Daniel. The original book of Daniel ends after chapter twelve. The extra material is found only in translations, such as the Septuagint, but not in the Masoretic Text. Bel and the Dragon is a later addition most likely derived from various legends and folk stories about Daniel. This non-canonical material includes chapter 13, known as the “Song of the Three Children”; chapter 14, known as “Susanna”; and chapter 15, known as “Bel and the Dragon.” The fifteenth chapter is a single narrative in three parts.

According to the text of Bel and the Dragon, Daniel is honored above all others by the new Persian king, Cyrus. The king asks Daniel why he does not worship the statue of Bel, to which the people have been offering great quantities of food every day. Daniel replies that he does not worship false gods made with human hands but only the living God. Cyrus claims that Bel is a living god, since all of the food offered to him disappears each night—eaten, he claims, by the idol. Daniel repeats his belief that his God is superior to Bel.

In a rage, Cyrus pits the Persian priests against Daniel. If they cannot prove that Bel eats the food, they will be executed. If Daniel cannot prove someone else is eating it, he will be executed. The priests ask the king to place the food himself and then seal the room with his own signet. Without telling the priests, however, Daniel spreads ashes in the idol’s chamber, as the king watches. The idol and food are then sealed in the room overnight.

The next morning, the king breaks the seal and sees that the food has been eaten. He begins to praise Bel when Daniel points out the evidence in the ashes. There are footprints of men, women, and children leading to a secret door in the wall. The seventy priests and their families have been sneaking in nightly to eat the idol’s offerings. Cyrus is furious and orders the priests, their wives, and their children killed. He gives the idol of Bel to Daniel to be destroyed.

The second part of Bel and the Dragon involves an actual living dragon, which Cyrus again tells Daniel to worship. Since the dragon is flesh and blood, Cyrus claims, it is superior to Bel and should be honored. Daniel again claims to worship only God and says he can kill this dragon without weapons. The king agrees to Daniel’s demonstration, and Daniel poisons the dragon with a mixture of tar, hair, and ashes. This causes the dragon to burst open, proving it to be an inferior creature and not a god to be worshiped.

The final part of Bel and the Dragon is a re-telling of Daniel’s experience in the lions’ den. Angry that Daniel destroyed the idol Bel and the living dragon, the people of Persia demand Daniel be handed over to them. King Cyrus is afraid of a revolution, so he agrees. Daniel is thrown into a den with seven lions for six days. These lions were typically fed two human corpses and two sheep every day, but, to make them more ferocious for Daniel, they are starved.

According to the story, God provides for Daniel through the prophet Habakkuk. God does this by sending an angel to carry Habakkuk from Judea, by his hair, and holding him over the den so he can drop food to Daniel. On the seventh day, Cyrus sees that Daniel is alive and well. He orders the ringleaders of the people thrown into the lions’ den instead, and they are immediately devoured.

The book of Daniel is inspired, but Bel and the Dragon, as an addition to the inspired text, is not considered part of the biblical canon. It is included in some apocryphal Bibles and in Catholic versions of the text.

1 and 2 Esdras

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.

What are the books of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras?

The books of 1 and 2 Esdras are not part of the biblical canon. First Esdras is part of what is considered the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical scripture. Second Esdras is an apocalyptic work and is considered pseudepigraphal. Except for some Greek Orthodox, Episcopal, or Lutheran Bibles, 1 and 2 Esdras do not appear in most Bibles. Authorship and dating of 1 and 2 Esdras are somewhat problematic, and some scholars place the writing of certain portions of 2 Esdras as late as the 2nd century AD. “Esdras” is another form of the name Ezra, which means “help.”

The Roman Catholic Council of Trent in 1546, which officially recognized several books of the Apocrypha, listed “the first book of Esdras, and the second” as part of the biblical canon. However, these are the books we normally call “Ezra” and “Nehemiah” today and are not to be confused with the pseudepigraphal 1 and 2 Esdras (which appeared in the Vulgate as 3 and 4 Esdras).

There are some historical problems with 1 and 2 Esdras. In the narrative of 1 Esdras, the reign of the Persian King Artaxerxes incorrectly precedes those of Cyrus the Great (c. 559—529 BC) and Darius I (Darius the Great, 521—486 BC), although some believe this is simply a literary device called “prolepsis” in which a person or event is assigned to an earlier period or represented as if it had already occurred. First Esdras appears in the Septuagint as an expanded book of Ezra, containing four additional chapters. It is an account of King Josiah’s reforms and history of the destruction of the temple in 586 BC and chronicles the Jews’ return from Babylonian captivity under Zerubbabel. This book was said to be known by Josephus (born AD 38).

Second Esdras was written too late to be included in the Septuagint and, therefore, does not appear within the more prominent canon (Jewish, Protestant, Catholic, or Orthodox). Second Esdras is also known by many other names, making it difficult to track fully. For example, 2 Esdras contains portions known in some circles as 3 Ezra, 4 Ezra, 5 Ezra, and 6 Ezra. The Ethiopian Church considers 4 Ezra to be canonical, whereas the Eastern Armenian Church labels it as 3 Ezra. Further, some scholars believe these books were written by several authors, including some possibly as late as the second century AD.

Second Esdras is often referred to as the Jewish Apocalypse of Ezra and contains seven visions of Ezra dealing with his angst over the pain and suffering inflicted upon Jews by Gentiles. Some scholars believe the book was written shortly after the AD 70 destruction of the temple in Jerusalem during the reign of Emperor Domitian (AD 81—96). While there is a definite tone of sadness in this work, there is consolation regarding ultimate retribution. There are six Messianic references within 2 Esdras.