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Tag: Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

Book of Jubilees

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the Book of Jubilees and should it be in the Bible?

The Book of Jubilees, sometimes called the “Lesser Genesis,” “Little Genesis,” or “The Testament of Moses,” is a pseudepigraphal work of Jewish apocalyptic literature. It was probably written in the second century BC, sometime between 135 and 105. The Book of Jubilees records an account of biblical history from the creation of the world to the time of Moses, as delivered to Moses by an angel on Sinai. The book divides history into periods or “jubilees” of 49 years. Generally, the Book of Jubilees follows the account of creation as recorded in the Book of Genesis, but it inserts interesting details such as the names of Adam’s daughters and the creation of angels. Some scholars consider the Book of Jubilees to be an extended midrash on Genesis through the first part of Exodus.

The only complete text of the Book of Jubilees still extant is an Ethiopic manuscript from the sixth century AD. It contains 1,307 verses. Most scholars believe that the book was originally written in Hebrew or Aramaic. That theory is bolstered by the discovery among the Dead Sea Scrolls of fragmented Hebrew texts containing portions of the Book of Jubilees. So far, at least fifteen separate manuscripts of the Book of Jubilees have been identified at Qumran. All have been reduced to fragments (“The Dead Sea Scrolls: The Book of Jubilees,” VanderKam, J., and Morgan, S., The Missouri Review, the College of Arts & Science of the University of Missouri, 12/1/1992), and those fragments provide only about 3 percent of the total content of the book. There are also some fragments of Jubilees existing today in Greek and Latin, but nowhere near a complete book in either of those languages or in Hebrew.

According to the Book of Jubilees, on Mt. Sinai “the angel of the presence spake to Moses according to the word of the Lord, saying: Write the complete history of the creation” (Jubilees 2:1, Charles, R. H., trans., 1902). This angel told Moses that God created various categories of angels on the first day of creation. Great stress is laid on the Sabbath in Jubilees 2:17–32. In chapter 3, Adam and Eve are in Eden for a period of seven years. Then, after “seven years exactly,” the serpent tempted Eve (Jubilees 3:17). It was only after the fall that Adam had sex with his wife (Jubilees 3:34).

Jubilees chapter 4 introduces Noah and his wife (who is named Emzara). Chapter 5 narrates the flood. The author of Jubilees writes that, after the flood, God says to Noah, “Command thou the children of Israel that they observe the years according to this reckoning—three hundred and sixty-four days, and (these) will constitute a complete year” (Jubilees 5:32). The 364-day solar year (rather than the 360-day lunar year) is one of the main thrusts of the Book of Jubilees.

Some scholars have pointed out that it appears that Jubilees was written precisely for the purpose of pushing the author’s commitment to a solar-based calendar. In Jubilees, God is concerned that His people might “disturb all their seasons and the years will be dislodged . . . and they will neglect their ordinances” (Jubilees 6:33). It’s true that the sun keeps a more regular schedule than the moon. So, in Jubilees, to prevent confusion and to keep holy days from getting “dislodged,” God instituted the 364-day solar calendar. Under that system, since 7 is a factor of 364, the same date falls on the same day of the week each year (e.g., every year July 4 would be on the same day of the week).

The command governing the calendar reflects another major emphasis in Jubilees: the laws concerning Sabbaths, Passover, firstfruits, and other holy days. The author of Jubilees claims that the feasts of the Lord were observed by the patriarchs long before the time of Moses. Circumcision is also stressed in the book, which promises “great wrath from the Lord” on uncircumcised Israelites (Jubilees 15:40).

The author of the Book of Jubilees was probably an Essene member of the Qumran community—the people who copied and preserved the Dead Sea Scrolls. Theological and cultural details within the book differ from the teachings of both the Pharisees and the Sadducees. The calendar system advocated in Jubilees is the one used in other Essene writings.

The Ethiopian Orthodox Church is the only group today that accepts the Book of Jubilees as canonical. There are several problems with including the Book of Jubilees in the Bible as part of inspired Scripture. Probably the most significant is that the author of Jubilees, in retelling the story of Genesis, changes the biblical record in several respects. In general, the patriarchs are glorified as holy men who were scrupulous in keeping the law—even the ceremonial aspects—long before Moses climbed Sinai. As portayed in the Book of Jubilees, Jacob does not lie to his father; Isaac eventually declares Jacob to be his true heir, an elderly Jacob settles on Leah as the wife he loves, and Abram’s deceit of Pharaoh is never mentioned. Clearly, these heroes of the faith are handled with kid gloves by the author of Jubilees; in contrast, Scripture presents a candid record of their faults.

Further, the Book of Jubilees adds to the Law of Moses and goes far beyond Scripture in its stress on punishment. For example, if someone eats blood, “he and his seed shall be rooted out of the land” (Jubilees 6:18). A father who gives his daughter in marriage to a Gentile “shall surely die, and they shall stone him with stones . . . and they shall burn the woman with fire” (Jubilees 30:11–12). Adding to the Bible, the Book of Jubilees says that during the Feast of Tabernacles (which Abraham first celebrated) Israel is to “set wreaths upon their heads” and carry branches around the altar seven times each morning (Jubilees 16:39, 41). Also, Jubilees stipulates the type of wood to be used for the fire of the burnt offering (Jubilees 21:16–19).

In summary, the Book of Jubilees adds to the Mosaic Law, leans toward hagiography, introduces sectarian teachings regarding the calendar, and lacks sufficient manuscript evidence. For each of these reasons, Jubilees fails the standards of the canon of Scripture.

Cyrus Permits the Exiles to Return

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in 1 Esdras.

2 In the first year of Cyrus as king of the Persians, so that the word of the Lord by the mouth of Jeremiah might be accomplished, 2 the Lord stirred up the spirit of King Cyrus of the Persians, and he made a proclamation throughout all his kingdom and also put it in writing:

3 “Thus says Cyrus king of the Persians: The Lord of Israel, the Lord Most High, has made me king of the world, 4 and he has commanded me to build him a house in Jerusalem, which is in Judea. 5 If any of you, therefore, are of his nation, may your Lord be with you;[a] go up to Jerusalem, which is in Judea, and build the house of the Lord of Israel—he is the Lord who dwells in Jerusalem— 6 and let each of you, wherever you may live, be helped by your neighbors with gold and silver, with gifts and with horses and cattle, besides the other things added as votive offerings for the temple of the Lord that is in Jerusalem.”

7 Then arose the heads of families of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin, and the priests and the Levites, and all whose spirit the Lord had stirred to go up to build the house in Jerusalem for the Lord; 8 their neighbors helped them with everything, with silver and gold, with horses and cattle, and with a very great number of votive offerings from many whose hearts were stirred.

9 King Cyrus also brought out the holy vessels of the Lord that Nebuchadnezzar had carried away from Jerusalem and stored in his temple of idols. 10 When King Cyrus of the Persians brought these out, he gave them to Mithridates, his treasurer, 11 and by him they were given to Sheshbazzar, the governor of Judea. 12 The number of these was: one thousand gold cups, one thousand silver cups, twenty-nine silver censers, thirty gold bowls, two thousand four hundred ten silver bowls, and one thousand other vessels. 13 All the vessels were handed over, gold and silver, five thousand four hundred sixty-nine, 14 and they were carried back by Sheshbazzar with the returning exiles from Babylon to Jerusalem.

Opposition to Rebuilding Jerusalem

15 In the time of King Artaxerxes of the Persians, Bishlam, Mithridates, Tabeel, Rehum, Beltethmus, the scribe Shimshai, and the rest of their associates living in Samaria and other places wrote him the following letter, against those who were living in Judea and Jerusalem:

16 “To King Artaxerxes our lord, your servants the recorder Rehum and the scribe Shimshai and the other members of their council, and the judges in Coelesyria and Phoenicia: 17 Let it now be known to our lord the king that the Jews who came up from you to us have gone to Jerusalem and are building that rebellious and wicked city, repairing its marketplaces and walls and laying the foundations for a temple. 18 Now if this city is built and the walls finished, they will not only refuse to pay tribute but will even resist kings. Since the building of the temple is now going on, we think it best not to neglect such a matter but to speak to our lord the king in order that, if it seems good to you, search may be made in the records of your ancestors. 19 You will find in the annals what has been written about them and will learn that this city was rebellious, troubling both kings and other cities, and that the Jews were rebels and kept setting up blockades in it from of old. That is why this city was laid waste. 20 Therefore we now make known to you, O lord and king, that if this city is built and its walls finished, you will no longer have access to Coelesyria and Phoenicia.”

21 Then the king, in reply to the recorder Rehum, Beltethmus, the scribe Shimshai, and the others associated with them and living in Samaria and Syria and Phoenicia, wrote as follows:

22 “I have read the letter that you sent me. So I ordered search to be made, and it has been found that this city from of old has fought against kings, 23 that the people in it were given to rebellion and war, and that mighty and cruel kings ruled in Jerusalem and exacted tribute from Coelesyria and Phoenicia. 24 Therefore I have now issued orders to prevent these people from building the city and to take care that nothing more be done and that such wicked proceedings go no further to the annoyance of kings.”

25 Then, when the letter from King Artaxerxes was read, Rehum and the scribe Shimshai and their associates went quickly to Jerusalem, with cavalry and a large number of armed troops, and began to hinder the builders. And the building of the temple in Jerusalem stopped until the second year of the reign of King Darius of the Persians.

Footnotes

  1. 2.5 Gk him

Josiah revives the Passover

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in 1 Esdras.

Precursor to write an Article

1 Josiah celebrated the Passover to the Lord in Jerusalem. He sacrificed the Passover lamb on the fourteenth day of the first month.[a] 2 He gave the priests, dressed in religious robes, their daily assignments in the Lord’s temple. 3 He said to the Levites serving in Israel’s temple: “Dedicate yourselves to the Lord for placing the Lord’s holy chest in the house that David’s son King Solomon built. You don’t need to carry it on your shoulders anymore. 4 Now worship the Lord your God and serve Israel, God’s people. Prepare yourselves according to your families and tribes, and according to the plan of King David and the greatness of his son Solomon. 5 Take your positions in the temple according to your inherited priestly[b] groups, serving before your people the Israelites. 6 Sacrifice the Passover lamb and prepare sacrifices for your people, and conduct the Passover ceremony according to the rules that the Lord gave to Moses.”

7 Josiah gave to the people a gift of thirty thousand lambs and kid goats and three thousand calves. These came as promised from the king’s own possessions to the people, priests, and Levites. 8 Hilkiah, Zechariah, and Jehiel[c] (the chief officials of the temple) gave to the priests for the Passover twenty-six hundred sheep and three hundred calves. 9 Jeconiah, Shemaiah and his brother Nethanel, Hashabiah, Ochiel, and Joram, military commanders, gave to the Levites five thousand sheep and seven hundred calves for the Passover.

10 This is what happened. Early in the morning the priests and Levites, 11 holding the unleavened bread, stood in the proper order of their tribes 12 and by their inherited groups. They brought the offerings to the Lord according to the scroll from Moses. 13 They roasted the Passover lamb over fire as required. They boiled the sacrifices, with a sweet aroma, in copper pots and kettles and carried them over to all the people. 14 Later on, the Levites prepared the Passover meal for themselves and for their fellow priests, Aaron’s sons, since the priests were offering the fat of the sacrifices until late into the night. 15 The temple singers, Asaph’s sons, were in their designated positions according to the instructions set down by David and by Asaph, Zechariah, and Eddinus, the king’s advisors. The city gatekeepers were at each gate. No one needed to change his daily routine, because the Levites had prepared the Passover meal for them. 16 Everything for the Lord’s sacrifice was accomplished on that day. They celebrated the Passover and offered sacrifices on the Lord’s altar according to King Josiah’s command.

17 The Israelites celebrated the Passover and the Festival of Unleavened Bread for seven days. 18 No Passover like it had been celebrated in Israel since the time of the prophet Samuel. 19 Nor had any of the kings of Israel ever celebrated a Passover like that celebrated by Josiah, the priests, the Levites, the Judeans, and all of Israel who were living in Jerusalem. 20 In the eighteenth year of the rule of Josiah this Passover was celebrated.

21 Josiah did the right thing in the Lord’s presence, because his heart was devoted to God. 22 The story of his rule was officially recorded in ancient times. The records include those who sinned and committed ungodly acts toward the Lord, beyond those of any other nation and kingdom. Their acts intentionally grieved the Lord, so that the Lord spoke against Israel.

Death of Josiah

23 Sometime after Josiah’s actions, Pharaoh, Egypt’s king, went to start a war at Carchemish on the Euphrates. Josiah went out against him.

24 The king of Egypt sent a message to Josiah: “What do you want with me, King of Judea? 25 I haven’t been sent out by the Lord God against you; rather, my war is at the Euphrates. Now the Lord is with me and urges me on. So stand aside and don’t oppose the Lord.”

26 Josiah, however, didn’t return to his chariot but resolved to fight. He didn’t pay attention to the words of the prophet Jeremiah, which came from the Lord. 27 He went to war with Pharaoh in the plain of Megiddo, and Pharaoh’s commanders came against King Josiah. 28 The king said to his attendants, “Take me away from the battle, for I’m severely wounded.” His attendants immediately took him away from the line of battle. 29 Josiah got into a second chariot. After he was brought back to Jerusalem, he died and was buried in his family tomb.

30 The whole land of Judea mourned for Josiah. The prophet Jeremiah also grieved for Josiah. The leading citizens, with the women, grieve over him until this day. This has become a tradition for the whole nation of Israel to observe. 31 These events have been written in the official records of the Judean kings. All of Josiah’s actions—including his honor, his understanding of the Law of the Lord, all that he did previously, and these things that are now told—are described in the official records of the kings of Israel and Judea.

32 Then the leaders of the nation appointed Jeconiah, Josiah’s son, who was 23 years old, as king to succeed his father. 33 He ruled in Judea and Jerusalem for three months. Then the king of Egypt removed him from his rule in Jerusalem 34 and fined the nation 5,700 pounds of silver and fifty-seven pounds of gold.

35 The king of Egypt appointed his own brother Jehoiakim as king of Judea and Jerusalem. 36 Jehoiakim put the officials in prison. He seized his other brother Zarius and took him from Egypt. 37 Jehoiakim was 25 years old when he began to rule over Judea and Jerusalem; he did what was evil in the Lord’s presence.

38 Then Babylon’s King Nebuchadnezzar went up against him, bound him with bronze chains, and took him away to Babylon. 39 Nebuchadnezzar also seized some of the Lord’s holy equipment, carried it off to Babylon, and placed it in his temple. 40 But the things reported about Jehoiakim,[d] his impurity and godlessness, have been written in the scroll about the times of the kings.

41 His son Jehoiachin[e] ruled in his place. When he was appointed king, he was 18 years old. 42 He ruled in Jerusalem for three months and ten days, and he did evil things in the Lord’s presence.

43 After a year, Nebuchadnezzar removed Jehoiachin to Babylon, along with the Lord’s holy equipment. 44 He appointed Zedekiah king of Judea and Jerusalem when Zedekiah was 21 years old. He ruled for eleven years. 45 He also did evil things in the Lord’s presence and paid no attention to the words Jeremiah the prophet spoke, which came from the Lord. 46 Although King Nebuchadnezzar had made him swear a solemn pledge in the Lord’s name, he swore falsely and rebelled. He was stubborn and broke the laws of the Lord, the God of Israel.

47 The leaders of the people and the priests committed godless and immoral acts far beyond the impure ones of the nations. They even corrupted the Lord’s temple that had been made holy in Jerusalem. 48 The God of their ancestors sent his messenger to call them back, because he was trying to spare them and his dwelling place. 49 But they mocked the messengers and made fun of the prophets on the day that the Lord spoke.

Finally, God, with divine anger, brought the Chaldean kings against his chosen nation because of their godless acts. 50 The Chaldeans killed the young people around the holy temple. They spared neither man nor woman, young nor old, for God handed over all of them. 51 They seized and carried off to Babylon all the Lord’s holy equipment, great and small, the treasure chests of the Lord, and the royal stores. 52 They set fire to the Lord’s house. They smashed the walls of Jerusalem. They burned its towers with fire. 53 They utterly ruined all of its radiance. King Nebuchadnezzar led away the survivors to Babylon under guard. 54 They became servants to him and to his sons until the rise of the Persian kingdom, which fulfilled the Lord’s word through Jeremiah, 55 who said, “Until the land has enjoyed its sabbath rest, it will remain untouched,[f] after its destruction, for seventy years.”

Footnotes:

1 Esdras 1:1 March–April, Nisan
1 Esdras 1:5 Or levitical
1 Esdras 1:8 Gk Esyelus
1 Esdras 1:40 Or him
1 Esdras 1:41 Gk Jehoiakim
1 Esdras 1:55 Or it will keep sabbath

Book of Jasher

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha, What’s new?.

What is the Book of Jasher and should it be in the Bible?

Also known as the “Book of the Upright One” in the Greek Septuagint and the “Book of the Just Ones” in the Latin Vulgate, the Book of Jasher was probably a collection or compilation of ancient Hebrew songs and poems praising the heroes of Israel and their exploits in battle. The Book of Jasher is mentioned in Joshua 10:12-13 when the Lord stopped the sun in the middle of the day during the battle of Beth Horon. It is also mentioned in 2 Samuel 1:18-27 as containing the Song or Lament of the Bow, that mournful funeral song which David composed at the time of the death of Saul and Jonathan.

The question is, if the Book of Jasher is mentioned in the Bible, why was it left out of the canon of Scripture? We know that God directed the authors of the Scriptures to use passages from many and various extra-biblical sources in composing His Word. The passage recorded in Joshua 10:13 is a good example. In recording this battle, Joshua included passages from the Book of Jasher not because it was his only source of what occurred; rather, he was stating, in effect, “If you don’t believe what I’m saying, then go read it in the Book of Jasher. Even that book has a record of this event.”

There are other Hebrew works that are mentioned in the Bible that God directed the authors to use. Some of these include the Book of the Wars of the Lord (Numbers 21:14), the Book of Samuel the Seer, the Book of Nathan the Prophet, and the Book of Gad the Seer (1 Chronicles 29:29). Also, there are the Acts of Rehoboam and the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah (1 Kings 14:29). We also know that Solomon composed more than a thousand songs (1 Kings 4:32), yet only two are preserved in the book of Psalms (72 and 127). Writing under the inspiration of the Holy Spirit in the New Testament, Paul included a quotation from the Cretan poet Epimenides (Titus 1:12) and quoted from the poets Epimenides and Aratus in his speech at Athens (Acts 17:28).

The point is that the divine Author of the Bible used materials chosen from many different sources, fitting them into His grand design for the Scriptures. We must understand that history as recorded in the Bible did not occur in isolation. The people mentioned in the Bible interacted with other people. For example, though the Bible is clear that there is only one God, the Bible mentions a number of the gods people worshiped both within Israel and in the nations around. Similarly, as in Acts 17:28 and Titus 1:12, we sometimes find secular writers being quoted. This doesn’t mean that these quoted writers were inspired. It simply means they happened to say something that was useful in making a point.

There is a book called “The Book of Jasher” today, although it is not the same book as mentioned in the Old Testament. It is an eighteenth-century forgery that alleges to be a translation of the “lost” Book of Jasher by Alcuin, an eighth-century English scholar. There is also a more recent book titled “The Book of Jashar” by science fiction and fantasy writer Benjamin Rosenbaum. This book is a complete work of fiction.

Another book by this same name, called by many “Pseudo-Jasher,” while written in Hebrew, is also not the “Book of Jasher” mentioned in Scripture. It is a book of Jewish legends from the creation to the conquest of Canaan under Joshua, but scholars hold that it did not exist before A.D. 1625. In addition, there are several other theological works by Jewish rabbis and scholars called “Sefer ha Yashar,” but none of these claim to be the original Book of Jasher.

In the end, we must conclude that the Book of Jasher mentioned in the Bible was lost and has not survived to modern times. All we really know about it is found in the two Scripture quotations mentioned earlier. The other books by that title are mere fictions or Jewish moral treatises.

3 and 4 Maccabees

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.

What are the books of 3 and 4 Maccabees?

The books of 3 and 4 Maccabees are ancient Jewish writings included in various lists of the Orthodox Church canon. The canon of Orthodox deuterocanonical books and the Armenian Bible list 3 Maccabees, while 4 Maccabees is listed in the canon of the Georgian Orthodox Bible.

The book of 3 Maccabees tells the story of persecution of the Jews under Ptolemy IV Philopator (222–205 BC) prior to the Maccabean uprising. Various scholars have dated the writing of 3 Maccabees as sometime between 100 BC and AD 30, though the exact date and author are uncertain. In contrast with its title, the book does not describe the actions of the Maccabees.

The book of 4 Maccabees is a philosophic discourse extoling the supremacy of pious reason over passion. After the prologue, the first section of 4 Maccabees sets forth the philosophical thesis, and the second section illustrates the points made using examples drawn from the Maccabees (principally, the martyrdom of Eleazer and the Maccabean youths) under Antiochus IV Epiphanes.

The early church historian Eusebius attributed 4 Maccabees to the Jewish historian Josephus. However, many critics have since disputed Josephus’ authorship, though scholars generally agree 4 Maccabees was written before the fall of Jerusalem in AD 70.

Much more well-known than 3 and 4 Maccabees are 1 and 2 Maccabees. There is also a 5 Maccabees. The books of 1 and 2 Maccabees are included in the deuterocanonical books used by the Roman Catholic Church, the Orthodox Church, and the Anglican Church. The book of 5 Maccabees is also known as the Arabic 2 Maccabees and was written much later in history.

The writers of the Septuagint, a Greek translation of the Old Testament, placed the books of the Maccabees (though not 5 Maccabees, which was written much later) in the category of “useful writings” rather than inspired Scripture. Neither 3 Maccabees nor 4 Maccabees is included among the 66 books of the Bible. Though 3 and 4 Maccabees may include some useful historical information, they should not be considered inspired writings from God alongside Scripture (2 Timothy 3:16–17).

1 and 2 Esdras

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.

What are the books of 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras?

The books of 1 and 2 Esdras are not part of the biblical canon. First Esdras is part of what is considered the Apocryphal/Deuterocanonical scripture. Second Esdras is an apocalyptic work and is considered pseudepigraphal. Except for some Greek Orthodox, Episcopal, or Lutheran Bibles, 1 and 2 Esdras do not appear in most Bibles. Authorship and dating of 1 and 2 Esdras are somewhat problematic, and some scholars place the writing of certain portions of 2 Esdras as late as the 2nd century AD. “Esdras” is another form of the name Ezra, which means “help.”

The Roman Catholic Council of Trent in 1546, which officially recognized several books of the Apocrypha, listed “the first book of Esdras, and the second” as part of the biblical canon. However, these are the books we normally call “Ezra” and “Nehemiah” today and are not to be confused with the pseudepigraphal 1 and 2 Esdras (which appeared in the Vulgate as 3 and 4 Esdras).

There are some historical problems with 1 and 2 Esdras. In the narrative of 1 Esdras, the reign of the Persian King Artaxerxes incorrectly precedes those of Cyrus the Great (c. 559—529 BC) and Darius I (Darius the Great, 521—486 BC), although some believe this is simply a literary device called “prolepsis” in which a person or event is assigned to an earlier period or represented as if it had already occurred. First Esdras appears in the Septuagint as an expanded book of Ezra, containing four additional chapters. It is an account of King Josiah’s reforms and history of the destruction of the temple in 586 BC and chronicles the Jews’ return from Babylonian captivity under Zerubbabel. This book was said to be known by Josephus (born AD 38).

Second Esdras was written too late to be included in the Septuagint and, therefore, does not appear within the more prominent canon (Jewish, Protestant, Catholic, or Orthodox). Second Esdras is also known by many other names, making it difficult to track fully. For example, 2 Esdras contains portions known in some circles as 3 Ezra, 4 Ezra, 5 Ezra, and 6 Ezra. The Ethiopian Church considers 4 Ezra to be canonical, whereas the Eastern Armenian Church labels it as 3 Ezra. Further, some scholars believe these books were written by several authors, including some possibly as late as the second century AD.

Second Esdras is often referred to as the Jewish Apocalypse of Ezra and contains seven visions of Ezra dealing with his angst over the pain and suffering inflicted upon Jews by Gentiles. Some scholars believe the book was written shortly after the AD 70 destruction of the temple in Jerusalem during the reign of Emperor Domitian (AD 81—96). While there is a definite tone of sadness in this work, there is consolation regarding ultimate retribution. There are six Messianic references within 2 Esdras.

What are the agrapha?

Written by LWOM Amsterdam on . Posted in Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha.

Agrapha

The agrapha are usually understood to be the sayings attributed to Jesus Christ that are not found in the canonical gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John). The word agrapha means “unwritten” or “unrecorded.” Because the agrapha are not found in a single, unique work, but are rather sayings taken from various sources—including oral tradition, medieval liturgies, and Muslim literature—we cannot say whether or not all the agrapha are canonical or consistent with Scripture. We must look at each saying individually and evaluate it with Scripture.

We can divide the agrapha into a few general categories. First are sayings that are not found in the gospels but are nonetheless attributed to Christ in other parts of the Bible. For example, in Acts 20:35 Paul says, “In everything I did, I showed you that by this kind of hard work we must help the weak, remembering the words the Lord Jesus himself said: ‘It is more blessed to give than to receive.’” The saying It is more blessed to give than to receive is attributed to Christ, but it is only found here, in the book of Acts. It is not found in the gospels. But, since Acts is a part of Scripture, and the apostle Paul is the one reciting, we know that this quotation from Jesus is canonical.

Another category of agrapha would include sayings attributed to Christ but which are really just summaries of teachings from the gospels. For example, Clement of Rome wrote in his first epistle, “For thus He spoke: ‘Be ye merciful, that ye may obtain mercy; forgive, that it may be forgiven to you; as ye do, so shall it be done unto you; as ye judge, so shall ye be judged; as ye are kind, so shall kindness be shown to you; with what measure ye mete, with the same it shall be measured to you’” (chapter 13). This seems to be a summary of some of the teachings from the Sermon on the Mount. While Clement’s paraphrase is not canonical, it is consistent with the teachings of Christ, being, as it is, a summary and condensation of some of Christ’s words from the canonical gospels.

A third category of agrapha might be supposed sayings of Christ that are at least “harmonious” with Scripture. These are not summaries or paraphrases of what Jesus actually said, but, at the same time, they do not conflict with Scripture. For example, this saying from the Coptic Apocryphal Gospels contains no erroneous doctrine: “Better is a single footstep in My Father’s house than all the wealth of this world.” We have no way of being certain whether such sayings were spoken by Christ or composed later and attributed to Him. If there is no conflict with Scripture, then agrapha of this type is, by definition, consistent with the Bible. But, since we have no proof such sayings are the actual words of Christ, we cannot consider them canonical.

Finally, we have the category of agrapha that includes sayings inconsistent with Scripture and which can therefore be rejected as actual sayings of Jesus. For example, the Gospel According to the Hebrews has Jesus making reference to “my mother the Holy Spirit”—words that are obviously incongruent with canonical revelation.

When we are confronted with any saying or idea that comes from a source outside of Scripture, it is always good practice to imitate the Bereans, who “received the message with great eagerness and examined the Scriptures every day to see if what Paul said was true” (Acts 17:11). There are many purported “words of Christ” in circulation, but we must always compare what we hear and read with Scripture in order to determine the truth.